Naturally Occuring Earth Quakes

- Naturally go alongring seisms recess types Tectonic seisms occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic physique slide fastener to drive fracture propagation on a cracking shroud. The sides of a fault move bypast each other smoothly anda unstableally yet if there be no irregularities orasperitiesalong the fault surface that increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do pass such asperities and this leads to a form ofstick-slip behaviour.Once the fault has locked, continued relative motion amongst the collection plates leads to change order focal point and therefore, stored attempt energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to chequer through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing thestored energy. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elasticstrainseismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface, and cracking of the stone, thus causing an quake.This process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as theelastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquakes total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the earthquakes energy is used to office the earthquakefracturegrowth or is converted into heat generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earths availableelastic potential energyand raise its temperature, though these changes ar negligible comp atomic number 18d to the conductive and convective flow of heat out from theEarths deep interior. 2 quake fault types important articleFault (geology) There are three important types of fault that may showcase an earthquake normal, reverse (thrust) and strike-slip. Normal and reverse faulting are examples of dip-slip, where the teddy along the fault is in the direction ofdipand fecal matter on them involves a ver tical comp unitynt. Normal faults occur of importly in field of studys where the crust is beingextendedsuch as adivergent boundary. reversion faults occur in areas where the crust is being mulctenedsuch as at a convergent boundary. Strike-slip faultsare teep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past each other transform boundaries are a particular type of strike-slip fault. Many earthquakes are caused by apparent motion on faults that have components of both dip-slip and strike-slip this is cognise as oblique slip. Reverse faults, particularly those alongconvergent plate boundariesare associated with the most powerful earthquakes, including almost all of those of magnitude 8 or more. Strike-slip faults, particularly continentaltransforms tidy sum produce major earthquakes up to about magnitude 8.Earthquakes associated with normal faults are worldwidely less than magnitude 7. This is so because the energy released in an earthquake, and thus its magnitud e, is proportional to the area of the fault that cracks3and the stress drop. Therefore, the longer the length and the wider the width of the faulted area, the big the resulting magnitude. The topmost, brittle part of the Earths crust, and the placid slabs of the tectonic plates that are descending down into the hot mantle, are the only parts of our planet which washbowl store elastic energy and release it in fault ruptures.Rocks hotter than about 300 degrees Celsius flow in response to stress they do non rupture in earthquakes. 45The supreme observed lengths of ruptures and mapped faults, which may modernise in one go are approximately deoxycytidine monophosphate0km. Examples are the earthquakes inChile, 1960Alaska, 1957Sumatra, 2004, all in subduction zones. The longest earthquake ruptures on strike-slip faults, uniform theSan Andreas Fault(1857, 1906), theNorth Anatolian Faultin Turkey (1939) and theDenali Faultin Alaska (2002), are about half to one third as long as the lengths along subducting plate margins, and those along normal faults are even shorter.Aerial photo of the San Andreas Fault in theCarrizo Plain, northwest of Los Angeles The most important parameter controlling the maximum earthquake magnitude on a fault is however non the maximum available length, but the available width because the latter varies by a factor of 20. Along converging plate margins, the dip angle of the rupture plane is precise shallow, typically about 10 degrees. 6Thus the width of the plane within the top brittle crust of the Earth can sustain 50 to 100km (Tohoku, 2011Alaska, 1964), making the most powerful earthquakes possible.Strike-slip faults tend to be oriented near vertically, resulting in an approximate width of 10km within the brittle crust,7thus earthquakes with magnitudes over very much braggyr than 8 are not possible. Maximum magnitudes along many normal faults are even more limited because many of them are located along spreading centers, as in Ic eland, where the thickness of the brittle layer is only about 6km. 89 In addition, there exists a hierarchy of stress level in the three fault types. Thrust faults are generated by the highest, strike slip by intermediate, and normal faults by the lowest stress levels. 10This can easily be understood by considering the direction of the greatest principal stress, the direction of the force that pushes the rock mass during the faulting. In the case of normal faults, the rock mass is pushed down in a vertical direction, thus the pushing force (greatestprincipal stress) equals the weight of the rock mass itself. In the case of thrusting, the rock mass escapes in the direction of the least principal stress, namely upward, lifting the rock mass up, thus the overburden equals theleastprincipal stress.Strike-slip faulting is intermediate amongst the other two types described above. This difference in stress regime in the three faulting environments can contribute to differences in stress d rop during faulting, which contributes to differences in the radiated energy, regardless of fault dimensions. Earthquakes away from plate boundaries chief(prenominal) articleIntraplate earthquake Where plate boundaries occur withincontinental lithosphere, tortuousness is spread out over a much larger area than the plate boundary itself.In the case of theSan Andreas faultcontinental transform, many earthquakes occur away from the plate boundary and are related to strains developed within the broader zone of deformation caused by major irregularities in the fault trace (e. g. , the Big bend region). TheNorthridge earthquakewas associated with movement on a blind thrust within such a zone. Another example is the strongly oblique convergent plate boundary between theArabianandEurasian plateswhere it runs through the northwestern part of theZagrosmountains.The deformation associated with this plate boundary is partitioned into nearly native thrust sense movements perpendicular to the boundary over a wide zone to the southwest and nearly pure strike-slip motion along the Main Recent Fault close to the actual plate boundary itself. This is demonstrated by earthquakefocal mechanisms. 11 All tectonic plates have internal stress fields caused by their interactions with neighbouring plates and sedimentary loading or unloading (e. g. deglaciation12).These stresses may be sufficient to cause failure along existing fault planes, giving rise tointraplate earthquakes. 13 Shallow-focus and deep-focus earthquakes Main articleDepth of focus (tectonics) The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at the ring of fire in depths not exceeding tens of kilometers. Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than 70km are classified as shallow-focus earthquakes, while those with a focal-depth between 70 and 300km are commonly termed mid-focus or intermediate-depth earthquakes.Insubduction zones, where older and colderoceanic crustdescends beneath another tectonic plate,deep-focus ea rthquakesmay occur at much greater depths (ranging from 300 up to 700kilometers). 14These seismically active areas of subduction are know asWadati-Benioff zones. Deep-focus earthquakes occur at a depth where the subductedlithosphereshould no longer be brittle, due to the high temperature and pressure. A possible mechanism for the generation of deep-focus earthquakes is faulting caused byolivineundergoing aphase transitioninto aspinelstructure. 15 Earthquakes and volcanic activity Earthquakes often occur in volcanic regions and are caused there, both bytectonicfaults and the movement ofmagmainvolcanoes. Such earthquakes can serve as an early warning of volcanic eruptions, as during theMount St. Helenseruption of 1980. 16Earthquake swarms can serve as markers for the location of the flowing magma throughout the volcanoes. These swarms can be record by seismometers andtiltmeters(a winding that measures ground set up) and used as sensors to predict imminent or upcoming eruptions. 17 R upture dynamicsA tectonic earthquake pay backs by an initial rupture at a point on the fault surface, a process known as nucleation. The collection plate of the nucleation zone is uncertain, with some evidence, such as the rupture dimensions of the smallest earthquakes, suggesting that it is smaller than 100 m while other evidence, such as a slow component revealed by low-frequency spectra of some earthquakes, suggest that it is larger. The possibility that the nucleation involves some sort of breeding process is supported by the observation that about 40% of earthquakes are preceded by foreshocks.Once the rupture has initiated it begins to propagate along the fault surface. The mechanics of this process are poorly understood, partly because it is difficult to recreate the high sliding velocities in a laboratory. Also the effects of strong ground motion make it very difficult to record information close to a nucleation zone. 18 Rupture propagation is generally modeled using afrac ture mechanicsapproach, likening the rupture to a propagating mixed mode shear crack. The rupture speeding is a function of the fracture energy in the volume around the crack tip, increasing with decreasing fracture energy.The velocity of rupture propagation is orders of magnitude faster than the displacement velocity across the fault. Earthquake ruptures typically propagate at velocities that are in the clench 7090% of the S-wave velocity and this is independent of earthquake size. A small subset of earthquake ruptures appear to have propagated at speeds greater than the S-wave velocity. Thesesupershear earthquakeshave all been observed during large strike-slip events. The unusually wide zone of coseismic damage caused by the2001 Kunlun earthquakehas been attributed to the effects of thesonic boomdeveloped in such earthquakes.Some earthquake ruptures hold out at unusually low velocities and are referred to asslow earthquakes. A particularly dangerous form of slow earthquake is t hetsunami earthquake, observed where the relatively low felt intensities, caused by the slow propagation speed of some great earthquakes, fail to alert the population of the neighbouring coast, as in the1896 Meiji-Sanriku earthquake. 18 Tidal forces See similarlyEarthquake predictionTides Research work has shown a robust correlation between small tidally induced forces and non-volcanic fear activity. 19202122 Earthquake clusters Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of location and time. 23Most earthquake clusters consist of small tremors that cause little to no damage, but there is a theory that earthquakes can recur in a regular pattern. 24 Aftershocks Main articleAftershock An by and byshock is an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake, the of importshock. An aftershock is in the same region of the main shock but always of a smaller magnitude.If an aftershock is larger than the main shock, the aftershock is redesignated as the ma in shock and the original main shock is redesignated as aforeshock. Aftershocks are formed as the crust around the displacedfault planeadjusts to the effects of the main shock. 23 Earthquake swarms Main articleEarthquake swarm Earthquake swarms are sequences of earthquakes striking in a specific area within a short period of time. They are different from earthquakes followed by a series ofaftershocksby the fact that no hotshot earthquake in the sequence is obviously the main shock, therefore none have notable high magnitudes than the other.An example of an earthquake swarm is the 2004 activity atYellowstone National Park. 25 Earthquake thrusts Main articleEarthquake storm Sometimes a series of earthquakes occur in a sort ofearthquake storm, where the earthquakes strike a fault in clusters, each triggered by the shakiness or stress redistribution of the previous earthquakes. Similar toaftershocksbut on adjacent segments of fault, these storms occur over the course of years, and w ith some of the later earthquakes as damaging as the early ones.Such a pattern was observed in the sequence of about a dozen earthquakes that struck theNorth Anatolian Faultin Turkey in the 20th century and has been inferred for older anomalous clusters of large earthquakes in the Middle East. 2627 - Size and frequency of occurrence It is estimated that around 500,000 earthquakes occur each year, detectable with catamenia instrumentation. About 100,000 of these can be felt. 2829Minor earthquakes occur nearly constantly around the world in places likeCaliforniaandAlaskain the U. S. , as surface as nMexico,Guatemala,Chile,Peru,Indonesia,Iran,Pakistan, theAzoresinPortugal,Turkey, modern Zealand,Greece,Italy, andJapan, but earthquakes can occur almost anywhere, includingNew York City,London, andAustralia. 30Larger earthquakes occur less frequently, the relationship being exponential for example, roughly ten times as many earthquakes larger than magnitude 4 occur in a particular time p eriod than earthquakes larger than magnitude 5. In the (low seismicity) United Kingdom, for example, it has been calculated that the average recurrences are an earthquake of 3. 4. 6 every year, an earthquake of 4. 75. 5 every 10years, and an earthquake of 5. 6 or larger every 100years. 31This is an example of theGutenberg-Richter law. TheMessina earthquakeand tsunami took as many as 200,000 lives on December 28, 1908 inSicilyandCalabria. 32 The number of seismic stations has change magnitude from about 350 in 1931 to many thousands today. As a result, many more earthquakes are reported than in the past, but this is because of the vast advancement in instrumentation, rather than an increase in the number of earthquakes.TheUnited States Geological Surveyestimates that, since 1900, there have been an average of 18 major earthquakes (magnitude 7. 07. 9) and one great earthquake (magnitude 8. 0 or greater) per year, and that this average has been relatively stable. 33In young years, t he number of major earthquakes per year has decreased, though this is probably a statistical fluctuation rather than a systematic trend. citation neededMore detailed statistics on the size and frequency of earthquakes is available from theUnited States Geological Survey(USGS). 34A recent increase in the number of major earthquakes has been noted, which could be explained by a cyclical pattern of periods of intense tectonic activity, interspersed with longer periods of low-intensity. However, accurate recordings of earthquakes only began in the early 1900s, so it is too early to categorically state that this is the case. 35 Most of the worlds earthquakes (90%, and 81% of the largest) take place in the 40,000km long, horseshoe-shaped zone called the circum-Pacific seismic belt, known as thePacific Ring of Fire, which for the most part bounds thePacific Plate. 3637Massive earthquakes tend to occur along other plate boundaries, too, such as along theHimalayan Mountains. 38 With the rapi d growth ofmega-citiessuch asMexico City,TokyoandTehran, in areas of highseismic risk, some seismologists are warning that a single quake may claim the lives of up to 3 cardinal people. 39 - Induced seismicity Main articleInduced seismicity While most earthquakes are caused by movement of the Earthstectonic plates, human activity can also produce earthquakes.Four main activities contribute to this phenomenon storing large amounts of pissing behind adam(and possibly grammatical construction an extremely heavybuilding), drilling and injecting liquid intowells, and byember miningandoil drilling. 40Perhaps the best known example is the2008 Sichuan earthquakein ChinasSichuan statein May this tremor resulted in 69,227 fatalities and is the19th deadliest earthquake of all time. TheZipingpu Damis believed to have fluctuated the pressure of the fault 1,650 feet (503m) away this pressure probably increased the power of the earthquake and accelerated the rate of movement for the fault. 41Th e greatest earthquake in Australias history is also claimed to be induced by humanity, through coal mining. The city of Newcastlewas built over a large sector of coal mining areas. The earthquake has been reported to be spawned from a fault that reactivated due to the millions of tonnes of rock removed in the mining process. 42 - Measuring and locating earthquakes Main articleSeismology Earthquakes can be recorded by seismometers up to great distances, becauseseismic wavestravel through the wholeEarths interior.The absolute magnitude of a quake is conventionally reported by numbers on theMoment magnitude scale(formerly Richter scale, magnitude 7 causing serious damage over large areas), whereas the felt magnitude is reported using the modifiedMercalli intensity scale(intensity IIXII). Every tremor produces different types of seismic waves, which travel through rock with different velocities * LongitudinalP-waves(shock- or pressure waves) * TransverseS-waves(both body waves) * Surfac e waves (RayleighandLovewaves) Propagation velocityof the seismic waves ranges from approx. km/s up to 13km/s, depending on thedensityandelasticityof the medium. In the Earths interior the shock- or P waves travel much faster than the S waves (approx. relation 1. 7 1). The differences intravel timefrom theepicentreto the observatory are a measure of the distance and can be used to visit both sources of quakes and structures within the Earth. Also the depth of thehypocentercan be computed roughly. In solid rock P-waves travel at about 6 to 7km per second the velocity increases within the deep mantle to 13km/s.The velocity of S-waves ranges from 23km/s in light sediments and 45km/s in the Earths crust up to 7km/s in the deep mantle. As a consequence, the first waves of a distant earthquake arrive at an observatory via the Earths mantle. Rule of thumb On the average, the kilometer distance to the earthquake is the number of seconds between the P and S wavetimes 8. 43Slight deviations are caused by inhomogeneities of subsurface structure. By such analyses of seismograms the Earths message was located in 1913 byBeno Gutenberg.Earthquakes are not only categorized by their magnitude but also by the place where they occur. The world is divided into 754Flinn-Engdahl regions(F-E regions), which are based on political and geographical boundaries as well as seismic activity. More active zones are divided into smaller F-E regions whereas less active zones belong to larger F-E regions. - cause of earthquakes 1755 copper engraving depictingLisbonin ruins and in flames after the1755 Lisbon earthquake, which killed an estimated 60,000 people. Atsunamioverwhelms the ships in the harbor.The effects of earthquakes include, but are not limited to, the following shiver and ground rupture Damaged buildings inPort-au-Prince,Haiti, January 2010. Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures. The severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquakemagnitude, the distance from theepicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reducewave propagation. 44The ground-shaking is measured byground acceleration.Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of shaking on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes. This effect is called site or local amplification. It is principally due to the transfer of theseismicmotion from hard deep soils to salving superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy focalization owing to typical geometrical setting of the deposits. Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earths surface along the trace of the fault, which may be of the order of several metres in the case of major earthquakes.Ground rupture is a major risk for large engineering structures such asda ms, bridges andnuclear power stationsand requires careful mapping of existing faults to identify any which are likely to break the ground surface within the life of the structure. 45 Landslides and avalanches Main articleLandslide Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, coastal wave attack, and wildfires, can produce slope instability leading to landslips, a major geological hazard. Landslide danger may persist while emergency mortalnel are attempting rescue. 46 FiresFires of the1906 San Francisco earthquake Earthquakes can causefiresby damagingelectrical poweror gas lines. In the event of water mains rupturing and a damage of pressure, it may also become difficult to stop the spread of a fire once it has started. For example, more deaths in the1906 San Francisco earthquakewere caused by fire than by the earthquake itself. 47 Soil liquefaction Main articleSoil liquefaction Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturatedgranularmaterial (suc h as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from asolidto aliquid.Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits. This can be a devastating effect of earthquakes. For example, in the1964 Alaska earthquake, soil liquefaction caused many buildings to sink into the ground, eventually collapsing upon themselves. 48 Tsunami The tsunami of the2004 Indian Ocean earthquake A large ferry boat rests inland amidst destroyed houses after a 9. 0earthquakeand subsequent tsunami struck Japan in March 2011. Main articleTsunami Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water.In the open ocean the distance between wave crests can surpass 100 kilometers (62mi), and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel 600-800kilometers per hour (373497 miles per hour), depending on water depth. Large waves produced by an ear thquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and wreak ravaging on far shores hours after the earthquake that generated them. 49 Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7. on the Richter scale do not cause tsunamis, although some instances of this have been recorded. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7. 5 or more. 49 gorges Main articleFlood A flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land. 50Floods occur usually when the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, exceeds the total capacity of the formation, and as a result some of the water flows or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body. However, floods may be secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged.Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which collapse and cause floods. 51 The terrain below theSarez LakeinTaji kistanis in danger of catastrophic flood if thelandslide damformed by the earthquake, known as theUsoi Dam, were to fail during a future earthquake. Impact projections suggest the flood could affect roughly 5million people. 52 Human impacts An earthquake may cause injury and dismission of life, road and bridge damage, generalproperty damage(which may or may not be covered byearthquake insurance), and collapse or destabilization (potentially leading to future collapse) of buildings.The aftermath may bringdisease, lack of basic necessities, and higher insurance premiums. - Major earthquakes Earthquakes of magnitude 8. 0 and greater since 1900. The apparent 3D volumes of the bubbles are linearly proportional to their respective fatalities. 53 Main articleList of earthquakes wiz of the most devastating earthquakes in recorded history occurred on 23 January 1556 in theShaanxiprovince, China, killing more than 830,000 people (see1556 Shaanxi earthquake). 54Most of the population in the area at the time lived inyaodongs, artificial caves inloesscliffs, many of which collapsed during the catastrophe with great loss of life. The1976 Tangshan earthquake, with a death toll estimated to be between 240,000 to 655,000, is believed to be the largest earthquake of the 20th century by death toll. 55 The1960 Chilean Earthquakeis the largest earthquake that has been measured on a seismograph, reaching 9. 5 magnitude on 22 May 1960. 2829Its epicenter was near Canete, Chile.The energy released was approximately twice that of the next most powerful earthquake, theGood Friday Earthquake, which was centered inPrince William Sound, Alaska. 5657The ten largest recorded earthquakes have all beenmegathrust earthquakes however, of these ten, only the2004 Indian Ocean earthquakeis simultaneously one of the deadliest earthquakes in history. Earthquakes that caused the greatest loss of life, while powerful, were deadly because of their proximity to every heavily populated areas or the ocea n, where earthquakes often createtsunamisthat can devastate communities thousands of kilometers away.Regions most at risk for great loss of life include those where earthquakes are relatively rare but powerful, and poor regions with lax, unenforced, or nonexistent seismic building codes. - Prediction Main articleEarthquake prediction Many methods have been developed for predicting the time and place in which earthquakes will occur. Despite considerable research efforts byseismologists, scientifically reproducible predictions cannot yet be made to a specific day or month. 58However, for well-understood faults the probability that a segment may rupture during the next few decades can be estimated. 59 Earthquake warning systemshave been developed that can provide regional notification of an earthquake in progress, but before the ground surface has begun to move, potentially allowing people within the systems range to seek shelter before the earthquakes impact is felt. - Preparedness Th e objective ofearthquake engineeringis to foresee the impact of earthquakes on buildings and other structures and to design such structures to derogate the risk of damage.Existing structures can be modified byseismic retrofittingto emend their resistance to earthquakes. Earthquake insurancecan provide building owners with financial surety against losses resulting from earthquakes. Emergency managementstrategies can be employed by a government or organization to mitigate risks and prepare for consequences. - Historical views An image from a 1557 book From the lifetime of the Greek philosopherAnaxagorasin the 5th century BCE to the 14th century CE, earthquakes were usually attributed to air (vapors) in the cavities of the Earth. 60Thalesof Miletus, who lived from 625547 (BCE) was the only documented person who believed that earthquakes were caused by tension between the earth and water. 60Other theories existed, including the Greek philosopher Anaxamines (585526 BCE) beliefs that s hort incline episodes of dryness and wetness caused seismic activity. The Greek philosopher Democritus (460371 BCE) blamed water in general for earthquakes. 60Pliny the Eldercalled earthquakes underground thunderstorms. 60 - Earthquakes in culture Mythology and religionInNorse mythology, earthquakes were explained as the violent struggling of the godLoki. When Loki,godof mischief and strife, murderedBaldr, god of beauty and light, he was punished by being bound in a cave with a poisonous serpent placed above his head dripping venom. Lokis wifeSigynstood by him with a bowl to catch the poison, but whenever she had to empty the bowl the poison dripped on Lokis face, forcing him to jerk his head away and thrash against his bonds, which caused the earth to tremble. 61 InGreek mythology,Poseidonwas the cause and god of earthquakes.When he was in a bad mood, he struck the ground with atrident, causing earthquakes and other calamities. He also used earthquakes to punish and inflict fear u pon people as revenge. 62 InJapanese mythology,Namazu(? ) is a giantcatfishwho causes earthquakes. Namazu lives in the mud beneath the earth, and is observe by the godKashimawho restrains the fish with a stone. When Kashima lets his guard fall, Namazu thrashes about, causing violent earthquakes. Popular culture In modernpopular culture, the portrayal of earthquakes is shaped by the memory of great cities laid waste, such asKobe in 1995orSan Francisco in 1906. 63Fictional earthquakes tend to strike suddenly and without warning. 63For this reason, stories about earthquakes generally begin with the disaster and focus on its immediate aftermath, as inShort Walk to Daylight(1972),The Ragged Edge(1968) orAftershock Earthquake in New York(1998). 63A notable example is Heinrich von Kleists classic novella,The Earthquake in Chile, which describes the destruction of Santiago in 1647. Haruki Murakamis short fiction collectionafter the quakedepicts the consequences of the Kobe earthquake of 19 95.The most popular single earthquake in fiction is the hypothetical Big One expected ofCaliforniasSan Andreas Faultsomeday, as depicted in the novelsRichter 10(1996) andGoodbye California(1977) among other works. 63Jacob M. Appels widely anthologized short story,A Comparative Seismology, features a con artist who convinces an elderly woman that an apocalyptic earthquake is imminent. 64InPleasure Boating in Lituya Bay, one of the stories inJim ShepardsLike Youd Understand, Anyway, the Big One leads to an even more devastating tsunami.In the film2012(2009), solar flares (geologically implausibly) affecting the Earths core caused massive destabilization of the Earths crust layers. This created destruction planet-wide with earthquakes and tsunamis, foreseen by theMayanculture and myth surrounding the last year noted in theMesoamerican calendar2012. contemporary depictions of earthquakes in film are variable in the manner in which they reflect human psychological reactions to the actual trauma that can be caused to like a shot afflicted families and their loved ones. 65Disaster mental health response research emphasizes the need to be aware of the different roles of loss of family and key community members, loss of home and familiar surroundings, loss of essential supplies and services to maintain survival. 6667Particularly for children, the clear availability of caregiving adults who are able to protect, nourish, and clothe them in the aftermath of the earthquake, and to swear out them make sense of what has befallen them has been shown even more important to their emotional and physical health than the simple giving of provisions. 68As was observed after other disasters involving destruction and loss of life and their media depictions, such as those of the 2001 World Trade Center Attacks or Hurricane Katrinaand has been recently observed in the2010 Haiti earthquake, it is also important not to pathologize the reactions to loss and displacement or disruption of governmental administration and services, but rather to validate these reactions, to support constructive problem-solving and reflection as to how one might improve the conditions of those affected. 69